Phonetics

DEFINITION

Phonetics is the branch of linguistics that deals with the sounds of speech and their production, combination, description, and representation by written symbols. Adjective: phonetic.

A linguist who specializes in phonetics is known as a phonetician.

As discussed below, the boundaries between the disciplines of phonetics and phonology aren't always sharply defined.

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Phoneme (word sounds)

DEFINITION



In linguistics a phoneme is the smallest sound unit in a language that is capable of conveying a distinct meaning, such as the s of sing and the r of ring. Adjective: phonemic.

Phonemes are language specific. In other words, phonemes that are functionally distinct in English (for example, /b/ and /p/) may not be so in another language. (Phonemes are customarily written between slashes, thus /b/ and /p/.) Different languages have different phonemes.

EXAMPLES AND OBSERVATIONS

"The central concept in phonology is the phoneme, which is a distinctive category of sounds that all the native speakers of a language or dialect perceive as more or less the same. . . . [A]lthough the two [k] sounds in kicked are not identical--the first one is pronounced with more aspiration than the second--they are heard as two instances of [k] nonetheless. . . . Since phonemes are categories rather than actual sounds, they are not tangible things; instead, they are abstract, theoretical types or groups that are only psychologically real. (In other words, we cannot hear phonemes, but we assume they exist because of how the sounds in languages pattern as they are used by speakers.)"(Thomas E. Murray, The Structure of English: Phonetics, Phonology, Morphology. Allyn and Bacon, 1995)

"Two points need to be stressed: (1) the most important property of a phoneme is that it contrasts with the other phonemes in the system, and hence (2) we can only speak of the phoneme of some particular speech variety (a particular accentof a particular language). Languages differ in the number of phonemes they distinguish . . ., but every valid word in every language necessarily consists of some permissible sequence of that language's phonemes."(R.L. Trask, A Dictionary of Phonetics and Phonology. Routledge, 2004)

An Alphabetical Analogy: Phonemes and Allophones"The concepts of phoneme and allophone become clearer by analogy with the letters of the alphabet. We recognize that a symbol is a despite considerable variations in size, colour, and (to a certain extent) shape. The representation of the letter a is affected in handwriting by the preceding or following letters to which it is joined. Writers may form the letter idiosyncratically and may vary their writing according to whether they are tired or in a hurry or nervous. The variants in the visual representations are analogous to the allophones of a phoneme, and what is distinctive in contrast to other alphabetic letters is analogous to the phoneme."(Sidney Greenbaum, The Oxford English Grammar. Oxford University Press, 1996)

Differences Between Members of a Phoneme"We cannot rely on the spelling to tell us whether two sounds are members of different phonemes. For example, . . . the words key and car begin with what we can regard as the same sound, despite the fact that one is spelled with the letter k and the other with c. But in this case, the two sounds are not exactly the same. . . . If you whisper just the first consonants in these two words, you can probably hear the difference, and you may be able to feel that your tongue touches the roof of the mouth in a different place for each word. This example shows that there may be very subtle differences between members of a phoneme. The sounds at the beginning of key and car are slightly different, but it is not a difference that changes the meaning of a word in English. They are both members of the same phoneme."(Peter Ladefoged and Keith Johnson, A Course in Phonetics, 6th ed. Wadsworth, 2011)

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Definition of Language

DEFINITION

Language is a human system of communication that uses arbitrary signals, such as voice sounds, gestures, and/or written symbols. The study of language is called linguistics.

Linguists (that is, specialists in the study of language) have defined language in many different ways. Here, chronologically arranged, are a few of those definitions.

"Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols."(Edward Sapir, Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech. Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1921)

"A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates."(B. Bloch and G. Trager, Outline of Linguistic Analysis. Waverly Press, 1942)

From now on I will consider a language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements."(Noam Chomsky, Syntactic Structures, 1957)

"[L]anguage is behaviour which utilizes body parts: the vocal apparatus and the auditory system for oral language; the brachial apparatus and the visual system for sign language. . . . Such body parts are controlled by none other than the brain for their functions."(Fred C.C. Peng, Language in the Brain: Critical Assessments. Continuum, 2005)

"A language consists of symbols that convey meaning, plus rules for combining those symbols, that can be used to generate an infinite variety of messages."(Wayne Weiten, Psychology: Themes And Variations, 7th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2007)

"We can define language as a system of communication using sounds or symbols that enables us to express our feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences."(E. Bruce Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 2nd ed. Thomson, 2008)

OBSERVATIONS ON LANGUAGE

"Would I had phrases that are not known, utterances that are strange, in new language that has not been used, free from repetition, not an utterance which has grown stale, which men of old have spoken."(ancient Egyptian inscription)

"Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, or of dictionary makers, but is something arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its bases broad and low, close to the ground."(Walt Whitman) 

"A language can be compared to a sheet of paper. Thought is one side of the sheet and sound the reverse side. Just as it is impossible to take a pair of scissors and cut one side of the paper without at the same time cutting the other, so it is impossible in a language to isolate sound from thought, or thought from sound."(French linguist Ferdinand de Saussure)

"Language is the mother of thought, not its handmaiden."(Karl Kraus)

"A language is a dialect with an army and navy."(Proverb popularized by linguist Max Weinreich, 1894-1965)

"But behavior in the human being is sometimes a defense, a way of concealing motives and thoughts, as language can be a way of hiding your thoughts and preventing communication."(Abraham Maslow)

"All words, in every language, are metaphors."(Marshall McLuhan)

Origins of Language: The East Side Story
"Language began in Africa, though exactly where is a matter of controversy. East Africa was the birthplace, according to a scenario sometimes known as the 'East Side story.' Around 3 million years ago, a major earthquake created the Great Rift Valley, splitting Africa's inhabitants into two major groups. Our cousins, the chimps, were left living and playing in the lush and tree-rich terrain of the humid west. But our ancestors, the proto-humans, were stranded in the increasingly arid east, where they were forced to adapt or die. . . . They were forced to broaden their diet, and began scavenging for meat. Better nourishment led to a bigger brain, a greater degree of social organization and, eventually, to language.

"But more important than the exact location of language within Africa is the fact that all human languages are remarkably similar to one another, indicating a common origin. Any human can learn any other human language. This contrasts with, say, bird communication, where the quacking of a duck has little in common with the trilling of a nightingale."

(Jean Aitchison, The Word Weavers: Newshounds and Wordsmiths. Cambridge University Press, 2007)

Likenesses and Differences
"When languages come to be seriously compared with one another, the question arises: are all languages alike, or are they different?

"Presumably everyone agrees that there are certain respects in which all languages are alike. All languages consist of meanings, wordings and sounds; they all have names for things; they all have melody, rhythm and syllabic articulation. Equally, everyone agrees that there are certain respects in which languages differ: not only do they obviously have different names for things, they also construct these names differently, have different kinds of melody and rhythm, and different ways of wording and of sounding.

The issue is, simply, which is to be more emphasized, the uniformity or the variety. This is really the old 'analogy-anomaly' controversy metaphorized into a modern form; but it is a critical issue. Philosophers of language stress the universals; they make all languages look alike. Ethnographers stress the variables; they make all languages look different. When new languages came to be described by European linguists, from the early 17th century onwards, first the modern European languages and then languages from further afield, both these opposing tendencies became apparent. Either every language is treated as a version of Latin, or each language is described in its own terms.

"The consequences of this are still with us today."
(Michael A.K. Halliday, "Ideas About Language" in Essays in Honor of Charles F. Hockett, ed. by Frederick B. Agard et al. Brill, 1983)


sumber : https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-a-language-1691218

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Daftar Irregular Verb & Regular Verb

Hay,. Hay,. Ketemu Lagi Bersama Saya Handiqa Minudin Kali Ini Aku Akan Memposting Tentang Daftar Irregular Verb & Regular Verb.(Sebenernya Cuma CoPas Sihh Hehe dari http://kelasbahasainggris.com/) Oke Ngak Usah Panjang-Panjang Langsung Ajja,. :-)

Untuk Daftar Lengkap Irregular Verb Klik Disini

Untuk Daftar Lengkap Regular Verb Klik Disini

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Bagaimana Menjadi Seorang Guru Yang Baik

1. Berilah contoh yang baik kepada siswa Anda. Ingat bahwa Anda adalah guru. Hal ini penting bagi Anda untuk menjadi seperti "superhero" Angka di mata mereka. Ingat bahwa siswa Anda mencari untuk Anda dan akan mencoba untuk meniru disposisi Anda. Jika Anda kasar atau tidak pantas, mereka akan memiliki model yang tidak pantas untuk perilaku mereka. Sangat penting bahwa siswa melihat Anda sebagai orang yang percaya diri, sehingga mereka mengikuti langkah Anda, dan merasa nyaman berbicara dengan Anda. Siswa, dari segala usia, membutuhkan seseorang yang mereka dapat bersandar, melihat ke, dan kepercayaan.


2. Memiliki konsekuensi yang jelas. Mengatur konsekuensi spesifik untuk melanggar aturan. Putuskan apa konsekuensinya dan kemudian menerapkannya secara konsisten. konsekuensi Anda harus mengikuti prosedur yang dimulai dengan sinyal non-verbal (seperti hanya melihat siswa), untuk sinyal verbal (meminta siswa untuk menyenangkan berhenti berbicara), untuk peringatan lisan (jika ini terus berlanjut akan ada konsekuensi ), untuk pelaksanaan konsekuensi. Konsekuensinya terserah Anda dan tergantung pada program sekolah. Banyak sekolah memiliki sistem penahanan (siswa melakukan membenci penahanan), atau mungkin menulis garis, atau duduk jauh dari siswa lain.


3. Jadilah penuh kasih. pendidik besar membentuk hubungan yang kuat dengan siswa mereka dan menunjukkan bahwa mereka peduli tentang mereka sebagai orang-orang. Mereka hangat, diakses, antusias dan peduli. Terbuka untuk tinggal di sekolah setelah-jam untuk membantu siswa atau mendapatkan terlibat dalam komite dan kegiatan sekolah-lebar, dan mereka menunjukkan komitmen untuk sekolah.


4. Mengatur beberapa aturan dasar. Anda harus memiliki 3-5 aturan bahwa siswa tahu tentang. Ini adalah aturan yang, bila rusak, tunduk pada skema konsekuensi yang diuraikan di atas. Coba memungkinkan kelas untuk menunjukkan aturan-aturan dasar: memiliki diskusi kelas dan menulis ide-ide, itu membuat kelas merasa mereka mendengarkan dan bahwa Anda peduli tentang pendapat dan masukan sementara juga menetapkan beberapa dasar bahwa mereka akan setia kepada karena mereka mereka telah membuat itu. Bertindak sebagai mediator untuk memastikan bahwa aturan diputuskan sesuai. Beberapa mungkin, misalnya, menjadi tenang ketika guru berbicara, saling menghormati, dan menyelesaikan pekerjaan rumah dan tugas kelas.


5. Cobalah menjaga lingkungan yang kreatif! Ini akan membantu anak-anak (5-11) berpikir lebih kreatif dan mereka akan datang dengan keren, ide-ide baru.

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How to be a good teacher

1.  Set a good example to your students. Remember that you are the teacher. It is important for you to be like a "superhero" figure in their eyes. Remember that your students look up to you and will  try to mimic your disposition. If you are rude or inappropriate, they will have an inappropriate model for their behavior. It is vital that students see you as a person with confidence, so that they follow your lead, and feel comfortable talking to  you. Students, of all ages, need someone they can lean on, look up to, and trust.


2.  Have well-defined consequences. Set specific consequences for breaking the rules. Decide what those consequences are and then implement them consistently. Your consequences should follow a procedure that starts with a non-verbal signal (such as just looking at the student), to a verbal signal (asking the student to please stop talking), to a verbal warning (if this continues there will be consequences), to the implementation of the consequence. The consequences are up to you and depend on the program of the school. Many schools have a detention system (students do despise detentions), or perhaps writing lines, or sitting away from other students.


3.  Be compassionate. Great educators form strong relationships with their students and show that they care about them as people. They are warm, accessible, enthusiastic and caring. Be open to staying at school after-hours to help students or get involved in school-wide committees and activities, and they demonstrate a commitment to the school.


4.  Set some ground rules. You should have 3-5 rules that the students know about. These are the rules that, when broken, are subject to the consequence scheme outlined above. Try allowing the class to suggest the ground rules: have a class discussion and write ideas, it makes the class feel they are listened to and that you care about their opinions and input while also setting some groundwork that they will feel loyal to because they've made it. Act as a mediator to make sure that the rules decided upon are appropriate. Some may be, for instance, be quiet when the teacher is talking, respect each other, and finish the homework and classwork.


5.  Try maintaining a creative environment!  This will help children (5-11) think more creatively and they will come up with cool, new ideas. 

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Education Ettitude (Cross-cultural Understanding)

“Education Ettitude”

       A.    Education

Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, and directed research. Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, but learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy.

Education is commonly divided formally into such stages as preschool or kindergarten, primary school, secondary school and then college, university, or apprenticeship. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education)

1.      Definition of Education According to Experts Education

a.       Ki Hajar Devantoro more familiarly called the father of Indonesian Education, argued that the definition of education is guiding the growth and development of children. That is, education is an attempt to lead the power of nature in every child so that they can grow and develop as human beings and as members of society who can reach salvation and happiness in their lives.

b.      Ahmad D. Marimba, education is a conscious guidance by educators to students with the aim of shaping the personality of the main physical and spiritual.

c.       Gunning and Kohnstamm, education is a process of formation and development of conscience, in which a person is able to establish and define themselves in an ethical manner based on conscience.

(http://www.pelangiblog.com/2016/07/pengertian-dan-definisi-pendidikan.html)

      B.     Ettitude

Attitude is the feelings, thoughts, and the tendency of someone who is more or less permanent familiar with certain aspects of the environment. The components of attitude is knowledge. feelings, and a tendency to act.

(http://www.pengertianahli.com/2014/03/pengertian-sikap-apa-itu-sikap.html)

1.      Understanding the attitude of some experts:

a.       Notoatmodjo S. (1997): Attitude is a reaction or response which was still closed and a person to a stimulus or object.

b.      Bimo Walgito, (2001): Attitude is the opinion of the organization, a person's beliefs about the object or situation that is relatively steady, which is accompanied by a certain feeling, and provided a basis for the person to make a response or berpenilaku in a certain way it chooses.

     C.    Education Ettitude

        Education attitude (affective) is closely related to one's own values. The attitude is a reflection of a shared value. Therefore, educational attitude is basically educational value. Value is a concept that is in the human mind that is hidden, is not in the empirical world. Values associated with one's view of good and bad, beautiful and not beautiful, worthy and unworthy, unfair and unjust, and so forth. One's views about all it does is intangible, we just might be able to tell from the behavior in question. Therefore the value is essentially the standards of conduct, measure or criterion that determines a person of good and bad, beautiful and not beautiful, worthy and unworthy, and so forth, so that the standards which will color the person's behavior. Thus, the value of education is basically the process of planting a value to the learner is expected therefore that students can behave in accordance with the views he thinks is right and does not conflict with the norms in force.

        Gulo (2005) concluded on the following values:

a.       Values can not be taught but it is known from her appearance.

b.      Affective domain development in value can not be separated from the cognitive and psychomotor aspects.

c.       Problem the value is emotional problems and therefore subject to change, evolve, so it could be developed.

d.      The development of values or moral  did not happen at once, but through certain stages.

(http://mizaneducation.blogspot.co.id/2012/01/hakikat-pendidikan-nilai-dan-sikap.html)

      D.    Conclusion

        Education attitude (affective) is closely related to one's own values. The attitude is a reflection of a shared value. Therefore, educational attitude is basically educational value.

Educational value is basically the process of planting a value to the learner is expected therefore that students can behave in accordance with the views he thinks is right and does not conflict with the norms in force.

References

1.      https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education

2.      http://mizaneducation.blogspot.co.id/2012/01/hakikat-pendidikan-nilai-dan-sikap.html

3.      http://www.pelangiblog.com/2016/07/pengertian-dan-definisi-pendidikan.html

4.      http://www.pengertianahli.com/2014/03/pengertian-sikap-apa-itu-sikap.html

                       

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The Relationship Between Language and Culture

“The relationship between language and culture”

A.    Terms of Language and Culture

Indonesian term, the same as the language, in English, taal in Dutch, Sprache in German, lughatun in Arabic, and the language in Sanskrit. Those terms, each having its own aspect, according to his thinking, to mention a cultural element that has a very broad aspect, so it is a concept that is not easily defined. as in the said right by experts:

    1.     According sturtevent, language is arbitrary symbol system, a sound that is in use by members of a social group for cooperation and interconnected.

    2.     According to Chomsky, language is a set of sentences, each finite length and contructed out of a finite set of elements.

    3.     According Keraf, language is a means of communication between members of the public, in the form of the symbol of the voice generated by the human vocal organs.

     4.      According to Von Humboldt, language is a synthesis of these two forms, that is the form of sound (Platform) and the from of mind (Ideenform) (Simanjuntak, 1983: 244).

    5.     According to Edward Sapir, language is a guide for a social reality. Languages also determine certain choices of interpretation in advance. (http://muhammadanwar-ss.blogspot.co.id/2012/05/hubungan-bahasa-dan-budaya.html)

        Culture according to Clifford Geertz as mentioned by Fedyani Syaifuddin in his book Anthropology kotemporer the system of symbols consisting of symbols and meanings are shared, and public. In line with the above opinion Claud Levi - Strauss views culture as the structural system of symbols and meanings are shared, which can be identified, and the public.
 

      B.     Relations Language and Culture

Language and culture are the two things are interrelated. This is evidenced by the many phenomena or realities that show the relationship between language and culture. The relationship could be a transformation, influence each other, and so forth. According Koentjaraningrat as quoted Abdul Chaer and Leonie in his book Sociolinguistics that language is part of culture. so, the relationship between language and culture is a subordinate relationship, where the language was under the cultural environment. But there is another opinion which says that the language and culture have a coordinative relations, namely the relationship which is equal, the same height position. (downloaded from https://donyprisma.wordpress.com/2012/05/17/hubungan-bahasa-dan-budaya/ on 27 September 2016)

Semoga Bermanfaat :-)

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What Is Culture

WHAT IS CULTURE

A.    Definition of Culture

Culture is a way of life that is growing, and is owned jointly by a group of people, and passed down from generation to generation. Culture is made up of many complex elements, including religious and political system, customs, languages, tools, clothing, buildings, and works of art. The word "culture" derives from a French term, which in turn derives from the Latin "colere," which means to tend to the earth and grow, or cultivation and nurture.

Soelaiman Soemardi & Selosoemardjan explained that a culture is a fruit or a work of authorship and a sense of community. A culture does have a very close relationship with developments in society. An archaeologist, R. Seokmono explained that culture is the result of work or human effort in the form of objects or results of human thought the days of his life. While Effat al-Syarqawi define a culture based on the viewpoint of Islam, he explained that culture is a historical treasure of a society that is reflected in the testimony and the values that lay down that a life must have meaning and spiritual purpose.

Lehman, Himstreet, and Batty defined culture as a collection of some of the life experiences that exist at a particular group of people. Life is meant to be a belief, behavior, and lifestyles of a society. While Parsudi Suparian, said culture will underlie all behavior in society, as a culture of human knowledge are all used to know and understand the environment and the experiences that happened to him.

Culture in Indonesia is very influential in the development of time from time to time and the changing natural conditions that exist in Indonesia. This is in accordance with the opinion of an expert from Indonesia, Ki Hajar Dewantara, who explained that culture is the result of society's struggle against nature and the times that prove the prosperity and the glory of life in dealing with or facing difficulties and obstacles to achieving prosperity, security and happiness in life ,

B.     Culture According to experts

1.      According Koentjaraningrat, culture is a system of ideas and taste, an action and the work produced by humans in the life of society, which made hers with learning.

2.     According to Kluckhohn and Kelly, Culture is everything living concept created historically, either implicit or explicit, irrational, rational, which exist at a time, as a reference potential for human behavior.

3.      According E.B. Taylor, Culture is a complex whole which includes belief, morality, art, customs, laws, abilities and other habits that are often studied by humans as part of the community.

4.     According to Linton, Culture is the entirety of the attitudes and behavior patterns and knowledge which is a custom inherited and owned by a member of a particular community.

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